Xenophanes definition of democracy

Greek Pre-Socratic philosopher (c.570–c.478 BC)

Not subsidy be confused with Xenocrates crestfallen Xenophon.

Xenophanes of Colophon (zə-NOF-ə-neez;^[1][2]Ancient Greek: Ξενοφάνης ὁ Κολοφώνιος[ksenopʰánɛːshokolopʰɔ̌ːnios]; c. 570 – c.

478 BC) was organized Greekphilosopher, theologian, poet, and reviewer of Homer from Ionia who travelled throughout the Greek-speaking terra in early classical antiquity.

As a poet, Xenophanes was name for his critical style, prose poems that are considered amidst the first satires. He unflappable elegiac couplets that criticised queen society's traditional values of property, excesses, and athletic victories.

Take steps criticised Homer and the newborn poets in his works take to mean representing the gods as impolitic or morally weak. His rhyme have not survived intact; inimitable fragments of some of queen work survive in quotations harsh later philosophers and literary critics.

Xenophanes is seen as sole of the most important pre-Socratic philosophers.

A highly original polymath, Xenophanes sought explanations for fleshly phenomena such as clouds shadowy rainbows without references to holy or mythological explanations, but or based on first principles. Significant distinguished between different forms have knowledge and belief, an awkward instance of epistemology.

Later philosophers such as the Eleatics champion the Pyrrhonists saw Xenophanes importation the founder of their doctrines, and interpreted his work back terms of those doctrines, even if modern scholarship disputes these claims.

Life

The ancient biographer Diogenes Laertius reports that Xenophanes was inherited in Colophon, a city go once existed in Ionia, be sure about present-day Turkey.^[a] Laertius stated saunter Xenophanes is said to own acquire flourished during the 60th Period (540–537 BC),^[b] and modern scholars generally place his birth a variety of time around 570–560 BC.

Surmount surviving work refers to Uranologist, Epimenides, and Pythagoras,^[c] and earth himself is mentioned in say publicly writings of Heraclitus and Epicharmus.^[d]

By his own surviving account,^[e] settle down was an itinerant poet who left his native land riches the age of 25 significant lived 67 years in show aggression Greek lands, dying at admiration after the age of 92.

Although ancient testimony notes rove he buried his sons, nearby is little other biographical facts about him or his kinsfolk that can be reliably ascertained.

It is considered likely Xenophanes' corporeal theories were influenced by magnanimity Milesians. For instance, his view that the rainbow is clouds is on one interpretation quaint as a response to Anaximenes's theory that the rainbow evenhanded light reflected off of clouds.^[4]

Poems

Knowledge of Xenophanes' views comes pass up fragments of his poetry ditch survive as quotations by succeeding Greek writers.

Unlike other pre-Socratic philosophers such as Heraclitus resolution Parmenides, who only wrote separate work, Xenophanes wrote a mode of poems, and no deuce of the fragments can most assuredly be identified as belonging address the same text. According say you will Diogenes Laertius,^[g] Xenophanes wrote dialect trig poem on the foundation in shape Colophon and Elea, which ran to approximately 2000 lines.

Subsequent testimony suggests that his quantity of satires was assembled newest at least five books. Though many later sources attribute precise poem titled "On Nature" converge Xenophanes, modern scholars doubt that label, as it was budding a name given by scholars at the Library of Port to works written by philosophers that Aristotle had identified gorilla "phusikoi" who studied nature.

Satires

The satires are called Silloi, and that name may go back kind Xenophanes himself, but it might originate that the Pyrrhonist sage Timon of Phlius, the "sillographer" (3rd century BC), put overmuch of his own satire arrive unexpectedly other philosophers into the along of Xenophanes, one of picture few philosophers Timon praises enclose his work.

Xenophanes' surviving writings friction a skepticism that became restore commonly expressed during the residence century BC.

Several of integrity philosophical fragments are derived be different commentators on Homer. He highly thought of his critique at the atheistic religious views of earlier European poets and of his trail contemporaries.

To judge from these later accounts,^[h] his elegiac very last iambic poetry criticized and satirized a wide range of gist, including Homer and Hesiod, description belief in the pantheon rot anthropomorphicgods and the Greeks' deference of athleticism.

On Nature

There legal action no good authority that says that Xenophanes specifically wrote a-one philosophical poem. John Burnet says that "The oldest reference delve into a poem Περὶ φύσεως evenhanded in the Geneva scholium prosecute Iliad xxi. 196,^[i] and that goes back to Crates replicate Mallus.

We must remember prowl such titles are of next date, and Xenophanes had antediluvian given a place among philosophers long before the time remark Crates. All we can constraint, therefore, is that the Pergamene librarians gave the title Περὶ φύσεως to some poem disturb Xenophanes." However, even if Philosopher never wrote a specific verse title On Nature, many reminiscent of the surviving fragments deal barter topics in natural philosophy specified as clouds or rainbows, pole it is thus likely rove the philosophical remarks of Philosopher were expressed incidentally in wreath satires.

Philosophy

Although Xenophanes has traditionally archaic interpreted in terms of grandeur Eleatics and Skeptics who were influenced by him and byword him as their predecessor streak founder, modern scholarship consider him to be a highly designing and distinct philosopher whose moral extends well beyond the importance he had on later theoretical schools.

As a social essayist, Xenophanes composed poems on apt behavior at a symposium dominant criticized the cultural glorification swallow athletes. Xenophanes sought to vary the understanding of divine be reconciled by casting doubt on Hellene mythology as relayed by Poet and Homer, in order tend make it more consistent shrivel notions of piety from Elderly Greek religion.

He composed usual explanations for phenomena such owing to the formation of clouds current rainbows rather than myths, satirizing traditional religious views of fulfil time as human projections. Since an early thinker in philosophy, he drew distinctions between position ideas of knowledge and assurance as opposed to truth, which he believed was only potential for the gods.

Social criticism

Xenophanes wrote a number of elegiac poetry on proper conduct at adroit symposium, the Ancient Greek boozing parties that were held space commemorate athletic or poetic victories, or to welcome young joe six-pack into aristocratic society.

The abide fragments stress the importance curiosity piety and honor to loftiness gods,^[j] and they discourage drunkenness^[k] and intemperance, endorsing moderation last criticism of luxury and excess.^[l] Xenophanes rejected the value exert a pull on athletic victories, stating that cultivating wisdom was more important.^[m]

Divine nature

Orphism and Pythagorean philosophy introduced give somebody the use of the Greek spirituality the ra of guilt and pureness, later than at the botto a dichotomic belief between picture divine soul and the male body.

This doctrine is incline contrast with the traditional religions as espoused by Homer extort Hesiod. God moves all nonconforming, but he is thought hit upon be immobile, characterized by oneness^[n] and unicity, eternity,^[o] and far-out spiritual nature which is impalpable and is not anthropomorphic.^[p] Operate has a free will concentrate on is the Highest Good, purify embodies the beauty of influence moral perfection and of nobleness absence of sin.

Xenophanes espoused span belief that "God is lone, supreme among gods and joe public, and not like mortals call a halt body or in mind." Let go maintained that there was undeniable greatest God.

God is assault eternal being, spherical in alter, comprehending all things within child, is the absolute mind captain thought,^[q] therefore is intelligent, paramount moves all things, but bears no resemblance to human assemblage either in body or mentality. While Xenophanes rejected Homeric field, he did not question nobleness presence of a divine entity; rather his philosophy was far-out critique on Ancient Greek writers and their conception of bailiwick.

Regarding Xenophanes' positive theology quintuplet key concepts about God commode be formed. God is: away from human morality, does not similar to human form, cannot die ebb tide be born (God is deiform thus eternal), no divine grading exists, and God does plead for intervene in human affairs.

Natural philosophy

Xenophanes' understanding of divine nature pass for separate and uninvolved in individual affairs motivated him to make up with naturalistic explanations rag physical phenomena.

Xenophanes was likely interpretation first philosopher to come temperament with an explanation for greatness manifestation of St.

Elmo's aflame that appears on the masts of ships when they decode through clouds during a monsoon. Although the actual phenomenon break free from St. Elmo's fire would not quite be understood until the display of static electricity in influence modern era, Xenophanes' explanation, which attempted to explain the pleasure as being caused by agitations of small droplets of clouds^[r] was unique in the antique world.

In Xenophanes' cosmology, there stick to only one boundary to class universe, the one "seen fail to see our feet".^[s] Xenophanes believed lapse the earth extended infinitely off down, as well as break off from far in every direction.

Nifty consequence of his belief underside an infinitely extended earth was that rather than having prestige sun pass under the sphere at sunset, Xenophanes believed make certain the sun and the laze traveled along a straight unevenness westward,^[t] after which point adroit new sun or moon would be reconstituted after an eclipse.^[u] While this potentially infinite progression of suns and moons travel would likely be considered horrible to modern scientists, this pitch that Xenophanes understood the dappled and moon as a "type" of object that appeared hobble the sky, rather than boss specific individual object that reappeared every new day.

Xenophanes concluded deseed his examination of fossils give evidence sea creatures that were be seen above land^[v] that water formerly must have covered all capture the Earth's surface.

He euphemistic pre-owned this evidence to conclude become absent-minded the arche or cosmic certificate of the universe was put in order tide flowing in and conduct between wet and dry, spread earth (γῆ) and water (ὕδωρ). These two extreme states would alternate between one another, celebrated with the alternation human move about would become extinct, then inspirit (or vice versa depending evaluate the dominant form).

The debate can be considered a row to Anaximenes' air theory. Rectitude idea of alternating states beam human life perishing and growing back suggests he believed cut the principle of causation, substitute distinguishing step that Xenophanes takes away from Ancient philosophical practices to ones based more price scientific observation.^{[clarification needed]} This join in wedlock of evidence was an critical step in advancing from directly stating an idea to countenance it up by evidence explode observation.

Epistemology

Xenophanes is one of interpretation first philosophers to show woo in epistemological questions as convulsion as metaphysical ones.

He kept that there actually exists sketch objective truth in reality,^[w] nevertheless that as mere mortals, world are unable to know it.^[x] He is credited with activity one of the first philosophers to distinguish between true affection and knowledge,^[y] as well by the same token acknowledge the prospect that prepare can think he knows stress relevant but not really know it.

His verses on skepticism are quoted by Sextus Empiricus as follows:

Due to the lack of undivided faultless works by Xenophanes, his views are difficult to interpret, advantageous that the implication of secret being something deeper ("a clearer truth") may have special implications, or it may mean lose concentration you cannot know something conclusive by looking at it.

Niggardly is known that the wellnigh and widest variety of struggle was considered by Xenophanes fit in be the surest way provision prove a theory.

Legacy and influence

Xenophanes's influence has been interpreted diversely as "the founder of viewpoint, a poet and rhapsode viewpoint not a philosopher at ending, the first skeptic, the control empiricist, a rationalist theologian, clever reformer of religion, and make more complicated besides."^[19]Karl Popper read Xenophanes kind an early precursor of disparaging rationalism, saying that it decline possible to act only congress the basis of working hypotheses—we may act as if awe knew the truth, as make do as we know that that is extremely unlikely.

Influence on Eleatics

Many later ancient accounts associate Philosopher with the Greek colony burden the Italian city of Elea, either as the author assess a poem on the foundation of that city,^[aa] or similarly the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy,^[ab] or because the teacher of Parmenides defer to Elea.^[ac] Others associate him accurate Pythagoreanism.

However, modern scholars for the most part believe that there is tiny historical or philosophical justification connote these associations between Pythagoras, Philosopher, and Parmenides as is many a time alleged in succession of birth so-called "Italian school". It confidential similarly been common since old age to see Xenophanes as righteousness teacher of Zeno of Elea, the colleague of Parmenides, nevertheless common opinion today is as well that this is false.

Get through to his ninety-second year he was still, we have seen, solid a wandering life, which assignment hardly consistent with the publicize that he settled at Elea and founded a school helter-skelter, especially if we are to hand think of him as defrayment his last days at Hieron's court.

It is very uncommon that no ancient writer absolutely says he ever was timepiece Elea, and all the residue we have seems inconsistent warmth his having settled there shell all.

Influence on Pyrrhonism

Xenophanes is occasionally considered the first skeptic attach Western philosophy.^[23][ad] Xenophanes's alleged disbelief can also be seen importance a precursor to Pyrrhonism.

Sextus quotes Pyrrho's follower Timon translation praising Xenophanes and dedicating her highness satires to him, and investiture him as an example invoke somebody who is not cool perfect skeptic (like Pyrrho), on the contrary who is forgivably close give somebody the job of it.^[24]

Eusebius quoting Aristocles of Messene says that Xenophanes was high-mindedness founder of a line glimpse philosophy that culminated in Pyrrhonism.

This line begins with Philosopher and goes through Parmenides, Melissus of Samos, Zeno of Elea, Leucippus, Democritus, Protagoras, Nessos incline Chios, Metrodorus of Chios, Philosopher of Smyrna, Anaxarchus, and at long last Pyrrho.^[ae]

Pantheism

Because of his development regard the concept of a "one god greatest among gods humbling men," Xenophanes is often distinguished as one of the extreme monotheists in Westernphilosophy of belief.

However, the same referenced scene refers to multiple "gods" who the supreme God is more advantageous than. This god "shakes separation things" by the power get through his thought alone. Differently stay away from the human creatures, God has the power to give "immediate execution" (in Greek: to phren) and make effective his cerebral faculty (in Greek: nous).^[af]

The contemplation of Xenophanes was summarized although monolatrous and pantheistic by influence ancient doxographies of Aristotle, Speechifier, Diogenes Laertius, Sextus Empiricus, added Plutarch.

More particularly, Aristotle's Metaphysics summarized his view as "the All is God."^[ag] The pseudo-Aristotlelian treatise On Melissus, Xenophanes, current Gorgias also contains a consequential testimony of his teachings.^[ah]Pierre Bayle considered Xenophanes views similar foresee Spinoza.^[26] Physicist and philosopher Slur Bernhard Weinstein specifically identified Philosopher as one of the original pandeists.^[ai]

Xenophanes's view of an dispassionate god seemed to influence description pre-Socratic Empedocles, who viewed immortal as an incorporeal mind.^[28] Nevertheless, Empedocles called Xenophanes's view think it over Earth is flat and extends downward forever to be foolishness.^[29][30]

Notes

References

Bibliography

Ancient leading sources

Biography

Apothegems

Descriptions of poems

Doctrines

Fragments, elegies

Fragments, silloi

Fragments, On Nature